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ashan.s.bandara1@gmail.com 0 historical places 6:30 AM

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Mihintale

ashan.s.bandara1@gmail.com 0 historical places 8:22 PM

<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMtX5DvtuKj7Xqg9_08Oa1tQiWjkVBtKvmixhqafplQRN3oeiRzjWDpaUWEic6RD1_Cxfa25C1SVbW8r4b6LwoxnZO8c82kgkpJ-gL9X2QKvljyTJGzcdTmL1HXJuPszQ2a42JFmqEXZfS/s1600-h/450px-Mihintale-stone_steps%25255B14%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Steps carved in rock near stupa." border="0" height="484" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbKMsg0vH2OQufnVuWELk3eALSa7Txyzf87R5o0Pi6onaXJceXbqYZ-IWwbKS1JhzbGyDOO_zf39nVC2R1BGNUviMK8XsAZKxi6KUHryt-ypChmfknyn6iPFeOD7yztJVlhac3fo5TlRiR/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; float: none; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; margin-left: auto; border-left: 0px; display: block; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: auto" title="Steps carved in rock near stupa." width="364" /></a> Mihintale is a mountain peak near Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. It is believed by Sri Lankans to be the site of a meeting between the Buddhist monk Mahinda and King Devanampiyatissa which inaugurated the presence of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. It is now a pilgrimage site, and the site of several religious monuments and abandoned structures. <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> Description</h4> Eight miles east of Anuradhapura, close to the Anuradhapura - Trincomalee Road is situated the "Missaka Pabbata" which is 1,000 feet (300 m) in height and is one of the peaks of a mountainous range. Geographically, the mountain range consists of three main hills: Ambastala Plateau of the Mango. Rajagiri, Mountain of the King, and Aanaikuddy the Mountain of the Elephant. The word 'Aanaikuddy' is Tamil. Thus, this mountain range should have some connection with the Tamils, probably the Tamil Buddhist Monks. According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Thera Mahinda came to Sri Lanka from India on the full moon day of the month of Poson (June) and met King Devanampiyatissa and the people, and preached the doctrine. The traditional spot where this meeting took place is revered by the Buddhists of Sri Lanka. Therefore in the month of Poson, Buddhists make their pilgrimage to Anuradhapura and Mihintale. “Mahinda” was the son of Emperor Ashoka of India. King Ashoka embraced Buddhism after he was inspired by a very small monk named “Nigrodha.” The King who was in great misery after seeing the loss of life caused by his waging wars to expand his empire, was struck by the peaceful countenance of such a young monk. Meeting this young monk made a turning point in his life and he thereafter, renounced wars. He was determined to spread the message of peace, to neutralize the effects from the damages caused by him through his warfare. As a result both his son and daughter were ordained as Buddha disciples, and became enlightened as Arahats. In his quest to spread the message of peace instead of war, he sent his son Mahinda, to the island of Lanka, which was also known as “Sinhalé”. This island was being ruled by his pen friend King Devanampiyatissa. Thus, “Mahinda” was the exclusive Indian name which in Sinhalé, became commonly known as “Mihindu” in the local vernacular “Sinhala”. In Sinhala Mihin-Thalé literally means the “plateau of Mihindu”. This plateau is the flat terrain on top of a hill from where Arahat Mihindu was supposed to have called King Devanampiyatissa, by the King’s first name to stop him shooting a deer in flight. Hence, “Mihin Thalé” is a specifically Sinhala term. This is how the place has been called and still is, in the local vernacular “Sinhala”. A study of the local vernacular will give ample proof for this. Therefore, the supposition that this name “Mihin Thalé” was derived from the Tamil name Mahinda Malai is erroneous and unfounded. This is said have been called Cetiyagiri or Sagiri,even thought it was more popularly known as Mihintale - the cradle of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. However, the story of Mahinda meeting the King Devanampiyatissa of Anuradhapura and preaching him the doctrine as said in Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa is very similar to the story of Satuvan meeting the leader of the Nagga Nagas and preaching him about the good way of life in the Tamil epic Manimehala. There are a number of description in Manimehalai that are same or similar to that of Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. From ancient times a large number of large steps were constructed to climb Mihintale. It is stated that King Devanampiyatissa constructed a vihara and 68 caves for the bhikkhus to reside in. At Mihintale there gradually grew a number of Buddhist viharas with all the dependent buildings characteristic of monasteries of that period. <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> The Hospital</h4> At the foot of the mountain are the ruins of a hospital, medical bath (or stone canoe in which patients were immersed in medicinal oil) a stone inscription and urns belonging to the ancient period have been unearthed. Between the hospital and the steps leading to the rock are the ruins of a large monastery. On the floors of the square building which is 125 feet (38 m) on one side, are beautiful carvings and also are stone balustrades and guard stones. As this side is precipitous, the steps are on the eastern side of the slope, spacious and in 4 sections. The stairway has 1840 steps made of granite, leading to the summit. At the end of the first set of steps on the right side of the plain, is a small mountain peak. On this is situated the most famous Kantaka Cetiya. Heinz E Müller-Dietz (Historia Hospitalium 1975) describes Mihintale Hospital as being perhaps the oldest in the world. <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> Kantaka Cetiya</h4> Kantaka Cetiya is a circular stupa having a base circumference of about 425 feet. It has three stepped rims. It has four frontispieces in the four cardinal directions. The frontispiece is called Vaahalkada. All the Vaahalkadas are decorated with sculptures of dwarfs, animals, human, divine figures and floral motifs. One of the most important of the sculptures on the Kantaka Cethiya Vaahalkada is the elephant headed God with two arms. The Saivites call it Ganapati or Ganeesaa. The Ganapati sculptures in the Vaahalkadas of the Kantaka Cetiya have created confusion among the archaeologists and historians. No one could not explain the connection between Ganapati God and Buddhism. Thus, the Sinhalese historians and archaeologists have tried to give some imaginary interpretation. The four vahaalkadas facing the four cardinal points have different animals on the top of the square pillars - the elephant on the east, the lion on the north, the horse on the west and the bull on the south. Most of the Indian and Sri Lankan archaeologists believe that there is a symbolic relationship between these animals and the four cardinal directions. But, they differ in associating a particular animal with a particular direction. However, in a moonstone of Sri Lanka and the Lion Capital of Saranath, we find these four animals sculptured in the moving position. At the same time, in the coins collected in the Northern mainland of Sri Lanka, Jaffna peninsula and Akurugoda of Rununa, we find the following symbols marked on them: 1. the Lion on one side, and a group of four dots placed in the form of a square at the centre of a circle on the other side; 2. the Horse on one side and a group of four dots placed in the form of a square at the centre of a circle on the other side; 3. the Bull on one side and a group of four dots placed in the form of a square at the centre of a circle on the other side. Also in the Northern and southern Sri Lanka, coins having a bull on one side and an elephant on the other side have been discovered. In India coins with a bull on one side and a lion on the other side have been discovered. Therefore, the animals lion, horse and bull are associated with the very same group of four things. Therefore, the animals lion, horse and bull must symbolize a human who is associated with a group of four things. Thus, one could come to the conclusion that the four animals lion, horse, elephant and bull symbolize Lord Buddha who is associated with the Four Noble Truths. Further study on coins, sculptures etc. will confirm this conclusion. Therefore, the Kantaka Cethiya could have been built by the Mahayana Buddhists only, as Theravada Buddhism rejects literature, puraanas, symbolization, symbolization of Lord Buddha and Buddhism, music, dance, sculpture, painting and other forms of art. On the other hand, Tamil name 'Aanaikuddy' and the compound word 'Vaahalkada' compels one to conclude that the Kantaka Cetiya was built by the Tamil Mahayana Buddhists and the name 'Mihintale' should have been Mahinta Malai. Thus, a further study has to be conducted on Kantaka Cetiya. However, the Sinhalese archaeologists and historians say that King Suratissa may have built this Stupa. The Pesavalalu and the frontispiece have been preserved to a great extent. There are ruins of the stupa which are 40 ft (12 m) in height. The monks would have resided in the caves close to the stupa. As this stupa was renovated by King Lajjitissa. There is no doubt that this belongs to the 1st century B.C. <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimvbR9gyHwn4kjDnW99Vg24wFMr96pxL1zgPDNHQ9PBOwAG0NYTdBlkSk0gwVBNtpCJ-ZMyqxYhlU5rdhUeuPm7JBrUF8fk6u2FllmE_2kTadfRVzN4v4AQNWTdA5pPXs0OKvN0t9BLQN7/s1600-h/Mihintale_A_view_from_top%25255B10%25255D.jpg"><img alt="A view toward entrance from top." border="0" height="484" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGX6avahtO__d8ndu0w5Jx5hhMvt2JgsV7txCI35zUb5Nm8yVkurME9wRYl0xALI_w1aOZCHbguSebg7WT7Q5RvCiRrloqr8y_3tI1Muz5i-Q5pfIKn7Py_jLkNXvVFab-TqPwOI_vom1j/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px" title="A view toward entrance from top." width="644" /></a> <h4></h4> <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> The Refectory</h4> The Courtyard is situated at the end of the third flight of steps. To the left of the courtyard is the refectory. The quadrangle is 62 feet (19 m) in length and 25 ft (7.6 m) in breadth and is surrounded by the storeroom. Since a part of a pipe line has been discovered here, it can be concluded that a systematic and well planned pipe borne scheme was provided. Two stone troughs can be seen here, which would have been used to store food close to the refectory. On either side of the entrance to a building, are 2 inscriptions engraved on 2 large slabs of granite known as the Mihintale stone inscriptions. The rules and regulations pertaining to the administrative purposes of the monastery are engraved on these 2 stone slabs. This inscription installed by King Mihindu (956 - 976 AD) contains records of payments made to the service staff. In the vicinity on another plain is the meeting hall of the monks. Here the monks met, to discuss the Dhamma and the Vinaya. This is an open building which is 62 feet (19 m) square and was constructed on 48 stone pillars. In the middle of the hall is a platform with 4 entrances. To the East of the refectory is a stupa, 88 feet (27 m) in circumference. It has not been identified so far. <h4></h4> <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> Ambasthala Dagaba</h4> Is situated on the plain close to the peak of the mountain, and is said to have been built by King Makalantissa. The ruins show that there has been a house built encircling the stupa. The Dagaba itself is said to enshrine the relics of the great Apostle Mahinda. It is here that King Devanampiyatissa first met Arahant Mahinda. The traditional spot where this meeting took place is marked by the Ambasthala Dagaba. <h4><img alt="Left hug" class="wlEmoticon wlEmoticon-lefthug" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQklSWZeUovJpYOfdV0DDJcEF7kd1ILON1EQjbv6GBzmLcGVEAs73augPFDiBSNXONsXyq9wlYyHTbDautBiKyQSiNYWqDwJmJXHzK_0nLBIKoFY5OHxz8SrwNw3tPdaa1CFfQKgUyvuER/?imgmax=800" style="border-top-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-right-style: none" /> The Cave of Arahant Mahinda</h4> <hr /> When proceeding from Ambastala dagaba along the narrow road, on the slope is the cave known as Mihindu Guhawa or the cave of Arahant Mahinda, where he resided. Out of the caves the most famous and incidentally the most sacred to Buddhists is this cave with its flattened slab on which Thera Mahinda was accustomed to rest. <h5> </h5> <h5>Maha Stupa</h5> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNuEfA0vhJXmadunHJPtMoKn96iDQq2iYC55WERnpkwq52w8v1DnzAo51k_BotEpWuJ8RSIPCk9OTCi7EcaC2XJ-b1FyLgfjKR3-1SlSLKz8bfNDniKayBHLrbMZVLu8AciPtAbdYAkugJ/s1600-h/800px-Mihintale_Mahaseya%25255B7%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Maha Stupa" border="0" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkkq0_EZ_I35YiFzqGoF65dOhFzu1k6IOXSdCe8HsPjmDuqMMREiA5lCFsJSHWTXDGUiFT4eZ8dCmbUPQGWNu9Zh03cXculgTLq1oLdNrx_cTQ_LVPbhhtElkZ2H6IaiX4r_jG9saP928f/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px" title="Maha Stupa" width="244" /></a> This large stupa known as the Maha Saya is on the summit of the Mihintale hill, built by King Mahadathika Mahanaga (7-19 AD) the base of which is 136 ft (41 m) in diameter. The stupa which was in a dilapidated condition was completely restored. <h5></h5> <h5>Aradhana Gala</h5> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyiU7je9SUmSpuTC054bm4X9bSb18PDASryYHAqprXewzSBEPlYFT9ijllCLxBfFXII8TqOW3pMQZHSsn66nTDOjYPsE3S4wt95Kf_Wv1Wqdx6Elwn1PYySLc8o3Q580aWE8z5dNsx7nwL/s1600-h/Mihintale_Missaka-pawwa%25255B6%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Aradhana Gala, where the Arahant Mahinda landed" border="0" height="184" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjS_ZcONSt1Jue2QgUsQaUj_yaVxECUAWctvDfp4d-bpvCV6ZhfFxREnedjzCXeq9mWA43KL40xmtY_ZEI1uLPO-8eQpTYNVf98_OxXjP_-jnEbwR-_NnW8Cp5rXtwqS0ZaCexFJcJTmRvk/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px" title="Aradhana Gala, where the Arahant Mahinda landed" width="244" /></a> Which faces Maha Seya is on a summit of a hill. Even during very windy weather pilgrims do not fail to visit this rock, which has iron railings to help them to climb. In the ancient books such as the Mahavamsa it is written that Mahinda came to Sri Lanka by travelling through the air. He came down and landed at Sri Lanka on the top of the Aradhana Gala. Naga Pokuna Passing Ambasthalaya on the western side are a flight of steps. When going down the steps one could see the Naga Pokuna. This has been constructed by King Agbo I and its name is derived as there are figures of snakes with their hoods spread out in the back ground and is one of the most famous ponds. <h5>Kaludiya Pokuna</h5> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNOX3z0POapSKIfAHKRFJjxj7L92BD25Wzp0MPSJNJJv_6vHj18Ob5i68BLZRxj2rrTARdkwtYeNE1HuarwAy45iBK0dwDDtgEECSu29WePlVhyeOjyp2N5WUYLW-chXKkjIqXEKJZOSbd/s1600-h/Mihintale_Kaludiya-Pokuna%25255B8%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Kaludiya pokuna." border="0" height="184" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjG5lLe06IvU2w8159kwKfEj1YkcHDRBrv7nh4O77BmpSSa-vfcdIi9IzKrn33x8EfXzM9Buk3A35XbAYfUJleYpTlX47UxLWL4mJDQyAwfVQ4L4A4QcU3GVnzqLNWsvVcKQ5aTiYOx8MMO/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px" title="Kaludiya pokuna." width="244" /></a> Is also one of the famous ponds at Mihintale. The name is derived from the fact that the water in the pond appears to be black in colour. It is believed that on new moon day Kalu Buddha Rakkhita Thera sat under the Thimbiriya tree, close to the Kaludiya Pokuna, preached on sermon based on Kalakarama Sutta. The word "Kalu" means black. The word "diya" means water, and the word "pokuna" means pond.

Mihintale

Mihintale is a mountain peak near Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. It is believed by Sri Lankans to be the site of a meeting between the Buddhis...

tribes

ashan.s.bandara1@gmail.com 0 9:40 PM

<h4><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAG8Cj9-4NpMVFwkswpZphSwiOZwh0D9GrvYWNNfEWkntlzyMkKp1rqGsGUvNejE5q0xiWxDMVlbqae9uCpR5y3muL5H_sr8R18UWQt8nBbaXtQQdIMDFuCP2bY7pMnSaiGGtRhVE78Jmr/s1600-h/Two_Representative_Tribes_of_Queensland_-_Natives_of_Yabber%25252C_Kabi_Tribe%25255B18%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Two_Representative_Tribes_of_Queensland_-_Natives_of_Yabber,_Kabi_Tribe" border="0" height="591" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFxNiIrdQCtOLA65tS6osMn__B7qij3cFzlrrbwVphsBYe-3qQvvls_bGStARe9AGp2n3DPHlOqz861y2qvmZnK-umm_UnkHIMEWOVWwI60Nl2p9vH7bJOCOda4iAFozG9dYY1FriBA6lW/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px" title="Two_Representative_Tribes_of_Queensland_-_Natives_of_Yabber,_Kabi_Tribe" width="735" /></a></h4> <h4>Etymology</h4> <hr /> The English word tribe occurs in 13th century Middle English literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The word is from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state: Tities (Titienses), Ramnes (Ramnenses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Varro, to the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans respectively. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Tatius, leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The term's ultimate etymology may be found in the Latin word for three, "tres". The dative and ablative declensions of this word are both "tribus". The word "tribus" could therefore mean "from the three" or "for the three". Another theory holds that tribus is perhaps derived from the PIE roots *tri- "three" and *bhew- "to be".[1] From 242-240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 Tribes (4 "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew שבט. In the historical sense, "tribe", "race" or "clan" can be used interchangeably. <hr /> Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions. Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:     Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian.     Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.     Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains.     Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments. In his 1972 study, The Notion of the Tribe, anthropologist Morton H. Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic. Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities. In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state. Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus. <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLvYNLAmFj4xlFxAep7vUes1bsgLI52UvK5Dx5T0LEGlVTWF12I3Eh-v3W5wd-QDqt6jrBTO2D_41Wl4eTCDn0dLgXKAuy59tqqIXbHY9IBb3NX6VJEkp3DPFWNuYMwBdRrSSol231jg_q/s1600-h/Tribes%25255B4%25255D.jpg"><img alt="Tribes" border="0" height="460" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjG9XLQ8kTVorF5z8YzEq3xE8tlzVPxJJ2_FJj1K-KUaNNQxm8mdIqRhQGGRZWNfE-pFlZfbYxXYjRhOU44koe0Jk4MmvtU9vv_lMFEzugEGbQlgqoGQgICy7otbZ03vkOSwTWCtCL7bnd/?imgmax=800" style="border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; float: none; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; margin-left: auto; border-left: 0px; display: block; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: auto" title="Tribes" width="644" /></a>

tribes

Etymology The English word tribe occurs in 13th century Middle English literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. ...

Ancient history of Sri Lanka

ashan.s.bandara1@gmail.com 0 4:35 AM

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The Ancient history of Sri Lanka begins with the gradual onset of historical records in the final centuries BC, ending the prehistoric period. A traditional date is the landing of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who arrived in Sri Lanka with 700 followers, dated to 543 BC, the earliest historical event mentioned in the Mahavamsa chronicle and the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka. The account of the Mahavamsa becomes historical from the 3rd century BC, with the arrival of Buddhism under Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka. Epigraphic sources also appear with the presence of Buddhism, from about the 3rd century BC. The earliest historiographic litearature, such as the Mahavamsa, dates to the 6th century AD. The entire ancient period of Sri Lankan history is dominated by the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The medieval period in Sri Lanka is taken to begin with the fall of the Anuradhapura Kingdom in AD 1017. 
 
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Pali Chronicles</h2>
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The Pali chronicles, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Thupavamsa[1] and the Culavamsa as well as a large collection of stone inscriptions,[2] the Indian Epigraphical records, the Burmese versions of the chronicles etc., provide an exceptional record for the history of Sri Lanka from about the 6th century B.C. The Mahavamsa, written around 400 AD by the monk Nagasena,[citation needed] using the Deepavamsa, the Attakatha and other written sources available to him, correlates well with Indian histories of the period. Emperor Asoka's reign is recorded in the Mahavamsa. The Mahavamsa account of the period prior to Asoka's coronation, (218 years after the Buddha's death) seems to be part legend.
 
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<h2>
Landing of Vijaya</h2>
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Sri Lankan written history begins with the arrival of Vijaya and his 700 followers. Vijaya is a semi-legendary figure. He is the first recorded king of Sri Lanka but is also a figure in medieval Sri Lankan Tamil literature. His reign is traditionally dated to 543 BC - 505 BC. The primary source for his life-story is the Mahavamsa. It is inevitably difficult, given the dearth of sources, to separate fact from legend in Vijaya's life, and as H. W. Codrington puts it, 'It is possible and even probable that Vijaya (`The Conqueror') himself is a composite character combining in his person...two conquests' of ancient Sri Lanka. Vijaya is a Kalinga (ancient Orissa) prince, the eldest son of King Sinhabahu ("Man with Lion arms") and his sister Queen Sinhasivali. Both these Sinhala leaders were born of a mythical union between a lion and a human princess. The Mahavamsa states that Vijaya landed on the same day as the death of the Buddha (See Geiger's preface to Mahavamsa). The story of Vijaya and Kuveni (the local reigning queen) is reminiscent of Greek legend, and may have a common source in ancient Proto-Indo-European folk tales.
 
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Mahavamsa tradition</h3>
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Mahavamsa attests that the ancestors of the Sinhalese came from Sihapura (Sinhapura) located in Lala Rattha (=Lata Rashtra). Prince Sihabahu had left his maternal grand father's kingdom in Vanga and founded a Sihapura in Lata Rashtra. He married Sihasivali and there were born Vijaya and Sumitta and thirty more sons to her. With time, Sihabahu consecrated Vijaya as prince-regent, but due to some misdemeanor of prince Vijaya, the king had to banish him and his 700 followers from Sinhapura. Story says that the king had caused their heads to be shaved (aradh-mundak) before putting them on a ship and driving them away into the sea. The exiles sailed past Bharukachcha and Soparaka and finally landed at Tambapanni (Ceylon) near Puttalam.[5] on the day of Parinibhana (decease) of the Buddha (542 BCE or 486 BCE). The exiles permanently settled on the island, married local wives and established their kingdom which, in succeeding generations, assumed the name as Sinhala, said to have been named after Sinhapura, the ancestral city of the exiles. The authorities such as Wilhelm Geiger, H. W. Codrington, Chatterji, Mendis, A. L. Bhasham, S. Parnavitana, K. M. De Silva, J. L. Kamboj etc. assert that the early settlers of Sri Lanka came from the north-west part of India, while others like Muller, Majumdar, Siddhartha, Sabidullah etc. hold that north-eastern India was the home of the earliest colonists. The Encyclopædia Britannica asserts on Vijaya's arrival in Sri Lanka as follows: "Their landing in Sri Lanka at Tambapanni, near Puttalam, would indicate their arrival from western India. Some early tribal names occurring in Sri Lanka also suggest connections with north-western India and the Indus region. While considerable evidence points to western India as the home of the first immigrants, it seems probable that a subsequent wave arrived from the east around Bengal and Orissa"
 
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Place-names</h3>
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According to the Mahavamsa, Vijaya landed on Sri Lanka near Mahathitha (Manthota or Mannar), and named the Island "Thambaparni" ('copper-colored palms). This name is attested in Ptolemy's map of the ancient world. Tamirabharani is the old name for the second longest river in Sri Lanka (known as Malwatu Oya in Sinhala and Aruvi Aru in Tamil). This river was a main supply route connecting the capital, Anuradhapura to Mahathitha (Mannar). The waterway was used by Greek and by Chinese ships travelling the southern Silk Route. Mahathitha was an ancient port linking Sri Lanka to India and the Persian gulf,. The present day Sihalese (and many modern Tamils) are a mixture of the indegenous people and of other peoples who came to the island from various parts of India. The Sinhalese recognize the Vijayan Indo-Aryan culture and Buddhism (already in existence prior to the arrival of Vijaya), as distinct from other groups in neighbouring south India.
 
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<h2>
Anuradhapura Kingdom</h2>
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<h3>
Arrival of Buddhism and the Sacred Tooth Relic</h3>
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Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 BC), a Sinhalese King of the Mauriya clan. His links with Emperor Asoka led to the introduction of Buddhism by Mahinda (son of Asoka) in 247 BC. Sangamitta, (sister of Mahinda) brought a Bodhi sapling via Jambukola (Sambiliturei). There is no evidence in the history of King Ashoka about his having had a son by the name of Mahinda (or by any other name) or a daughter by the name of Sangamitta (or by any other name). This king's reign was crucial to Theravada Buddhism, and for Sri Lanka.
 
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<h3>
Invasions</h3>
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Elara (205-161 BC), a South Indian Tamil King who ruled "Pihiti Rata", i.e., Sri Lanka north of the mahaweli, after killing King Asela. During Elara's time, Kelani Tissa was a sub-king of Maya Rata (south-west) and Kavan Tissa was a regional sub-king of Ruhuna (south-east). Kavan Tissa built Tissa Maha Vihara, Dighavapi Tank and many shrines in Seruvila. Dutugemunu (161-137 BC) – Eldest son of King Kavan Tissa, who was a young man 25 years of age, defeated the South Indian Tamil Invader Elara (over 64 years of age) in single combat, described in the Mahavamsa. Dutugemunu is depicted as a Sinhala "Asoka". The Ruwanwelisaya, built by this king is a dagaba of pyramid-like proportions. It was an engineering marvel. Pulahatta (or Pulahatha) deposed by Bahiya, was deposed by Panaya Mara, deposed by Pilaya Mara, murdered by Dathiya 88 BC – deposed by Valagambahu, ending Tamil rule. Valagambahu I (89-77) BC – restored the Dutugamunu dynasty. The Mahavihara Theravada - Abhayagiri (pro-Mahayana) doctrinal disputes arose at this time. The Tripitaka was written in Pali at Aluvihara, Matale. Chora Naga (Mahanaga) (63-51) BC; poisoned by his consort Anula. Queen Anula (48-44 BC) – Widow of Chora Naga and Kuda Tissa, was the first Queen of Lanka. She had many lovers who were poisoned by her. She was finally killed by: Kuttakanna Tissa. Vasabha (67-111 AD) – Vallipuram gold plate; he fortified Anuradhapura and built eleven tanks; many edicts. Gajabahu I (114-136) – invaded the Chola kingdom and brought back captives. He recovered the tooth relic of the Buddha. Mahasena (274-301) – The Theravada (Maha Vihara) was persecuted and Mahayana surfaced. Later the King returned to the Maha Vihara. Pandu (429) - first of seven Pandiyan rulers, ending with Pithya, 455; Dhatusena (459-477), his uncle, Mahanama wrote the Mahavamsa, he built "Kalaweva". His son Kashyapa (477-495), built the famous sigiriya rock palace. Some 700 rock graffiti give a glimpse of ancient Sinhala.
 
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<h3>
Lambakanna</h3>
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Manavamma (684-718) – seized the throne with Pallava help. Manavamma introduced Pallava patronage for three centuries. By the 9th century, with the Pandyan ascendancy in southern India, Anuradhapura was sacked. However, the Sinhalese invaded Pandya using a rival prince, and Madurai itself was sacked. Mahinda V (982-1029) – was the last Sinhala monarch of Anuradhapura. He fled to Ruhuna, where, in 1017, the Chola took him to prison and he died in India.
 
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<h3>
Demise</h3>
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In 993, the Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded Sri Lanka, forcing the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the country. The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak, and the country was suffering from poverty by this time. It further mentions that his army rose against him due to lack of wages. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura. They moved the capital to Polonnaruwa and subsequent Sri Lankan rulers who came into power after the Chola reign continued to use Polonnaruwa as the capital, thus ending the Anuradhapura Kingdom.
 
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<h2>
Technology</h2>
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The irrigation works in ancient Sri Lanka dated from about 300 BC during the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years, were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs and dams to store water. The system was extensively restored and further extended during the reign of King Parākramabāhu.
 
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Kaboja or Kambojas</h3>
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"Several early Brahmi inscriptions in Ceylon refer to a community of people called Kambojas who then lived in various parts of Sri Lanka. An early Pali text refers to a Kambojagama in Rohana". The Kaboja (also Kamboja or Kambodin) are mentioned in eight Brahmi texts. The Dameda are referenced in five texts. The Mileka are mentioned twice. The Muridi, Meraya and Jhavaka are mentioned only once. The Kambojas living in Rohana are mentioned in the (?th) chapter of the Sihalavatthu, a Pali text from about 300 AD. An Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni (Sri Lanka), according to chapter 3, Metteyya-vatthu, of the Sihalavatthu. Further, the Mahavamsa asserts the Yonas or Yavanas (Greeks), neighbors to the Kambojas in the north-west, also had a settlement in Pandukabhaya in Anuradhapura. Eight epigraphic and one literary sources attest that the Kambojas had settled in various parts of Ceylon including Hambantoa district and Aparai districts of Rohana province, in Kurunagala district Southwest of Anuradhapura, in Polonnaruva district in eastern Ceylon as well as in Anuradhapura city. A Kambojagama is attested in the Southeast in Rohana province. Ancient inscriptions reveal that the Kambojas were actively involved in trade, referencing one "Grand Trade Guild of the Kambojas" (Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana) in Aparai district in Rohana and one "Sangha of the Kambojas" (Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na) in Kurunagala district in Southwest Anuradhapura. Epigraphers date these inscriptions to at least 200 BC, or even earlier. The Indo-Aryan speakers of Sri Lanka may be descended from these north-western Kambojas  Another portion of this Aryan population originated among the Sakas and the Yavanas. These Kambojas inhabited a region bordering the upper Indus in a country near Sind, from whence they, and the Yavanas, finally reached Ceylon in pre-Christian times.
 
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<h3>
Dameda (Damela) or Tamils (Dravidian group from southern India)</h3>
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The Dameda are the second most mentioned ethnic group in the epigraphy of Ceylon, with mention in five cave inscriptions. "Dameda" in these inscriptions stands for Damela (=Tamil)  According to another view, Dameda is a Sanskrit equivalent of Dravida. These inscriptions reference the Tamil merchant (Vishaka), the Tamil householder Samana (residing) in Ilubharata and a Tamil navika (or sailor) Karava. These Tamil inscriptions are further corroborated by a reference in the Mahavamsa which contains the expression "Damilas Assandviks" i.e. those (Tamils) who brought horses in water-craft. Early Buddhist literature from north India refers to the Uttarapatha (comprising the Kambojas, Kashmiras, and Gandharas)  as horse traders  attesting that horses were brought for sale to various parts of the subcontinent. By early mediaeval times, the Kambojas had adopted Islam and were still trading all along the west-coast of India from the Persian Gulf to Ceylon and probably further-east. Kamboja traders from the north-west and Tamil merchants from southern India had probably been involved in trade and settlement in Sri Lanka. Two of the five ancient inscriptions referring to the Damedas (Tamils) are in Periya Pullyakulam in the Vayuniya District, one is in Seruvavila district in Trincomalee district, one is in Kuduvil in Amprai district and one in the ancient city of Anuradhapura.
 
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Mileka, Muridi, Merya and Jhavaka</h3>
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Other ethnic terms like Mileka, Muridi, Meraya and Jhavaka are also mentioned in the ancient texts. Milaka, occurring twice in the sources, may be Mlechcha, an aboriginal population of Vedda people. Muridi may be Murunda (Saka Murunda) Merya may be Maurya. Jhavaka identity is not clear. Each of the last three of these terms occur only once in the record

Ancient history of Sri Lanka

The Ancient history of Sri Lanka begins with the gradual onset of historical records in the final centuries BC, ending the prehistoric pe...